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Pre-production of the film began in early 1997. The inspiration for Finding Nemo sprang from multiple experiences, going back to Stanton's childhood, when he loved going to the dentist to see the fish tank, assuming that the fish were from the ocean and wanted to go home. To ensure that the movements of the fish in the film were believable, the animators took a crash course in fish biology and oceanography. Thomas Newman composed the score for the film.
Premiering in Los Angeles on May 18, Finding Nemo was released in theaters in the United States on May 30, 2003. Upon its release, it received widespread acclaim from critics, who praised the visual elements, screenplay, animation, Newman's score and characters that have been cited as funny to both young moviegoers and their parents.[3] It became the highest-grossing animated film at the time of its release, and the second-highest-grossing film of 2003, earning a total of $871 million worldwide by the end of its initial theatrical run.[4] The film received four nominations at the 76th Academy Awards, and won the award for Best Animated Feature, becoming the first Pixar film to do so.
Finding Nemo is the best-selling DVD title of all time, with over 40 million copies sold as of 2006[update],[5] and was the highest-grossing G-rated film of all time before Pixar's own Toy Story 3 overtook it. The film was re-released in 3D in 2012. In 2008, the American Film Institute named it as the 10th greatest American animated film as part of their 10 Top 10 lists.[6] A sequel, Finding Dory, was released in June 2016.
Clownfish Marlin and his wife, Coral, live happily in an anemone in the Great Barrier Reef. They are about to become parents, waiting for their many eggs to hatch. A barracuda approaches the anemone and knocks Marlin unconscious. Upon awakening, Marlin discovers that Coral and all but one of the eggs have been eaten by the barracuda; the last remaining egg is cracked. Marlin vows to keep his only surviving child safe.
Marlin becomes overprotective of his son, Nemo. On Nemo's first day at school, the two have a heated argument regarding Marlin's parenting approach. Nemo defiantly swims to a speedboat and is captured by scuba divers. Marlin frantically pursues the boat in vain. Marlin meets Dory, a blue tang with acute short-term memory loss, who offers to help him. The two encounter Bruce, Anchor, and Chum, three sharks who have sworn to abstain from eating fish. Marlin finds a diver's mask that fell from the boat and accidentally injures Dory with it. The scent of her blood sends Bruce into a frenzy and he accidentally sets off old naval mines; the sharks, Marlin, and Dory are able to swim to safety before the mines blow up.
Nemo is placed in a fish tank in the office of dentist Philip Sherman in Sydney. He meets the "Tank Gang", led by Gill, a scarred Moorish idol. Sherman plans to give Nemo to his niece, Darla, who killed her previous pet fish. Gill, who also wishes to return to the ocean, devises an escape plan: Nemo, the smallest fish in the tank, will block the aquarium's filter tube with a pebble, obliging Sherman to put the fish into bags while he cleans the tank. This will allow them to roll out the window and into the harbor. Nemo attempts to block the filter but fails and is almost killed by the filter's machinery, causing Gill to feel deeply regretful.
The diver's mask falls into a deep trench. As Marlin and Dory search for it, they are attacked by an anglerfish but manage to trap it using the mask. Dory memorizes the address written on the mask. A school of moonfish give the pair directions to the East Australian Current. On their way, Marlin and Dory become trapped in a forest of jellyfish. After being stung and knocked unconscious, they awaken in the East Australian Current with a large group of sea turtles, including Crush and his son, Squirt. The story of Marlin's quest is relayed by the turtles all across the ocean to Sydney, where it reaches Nigel, a pelican who regularly converses with the Tank Gang. Nigel tells the Tank Gang of Marlin's journey, motivating Nemo to try blocking the filter again. Nemo is successful, and the aquarium quickly becomes covered in green algae.
After exiting the current, Marlin and Dory get lost and are consumed by a blue whale. The whale expels them through its blowhole into Sydney Harbour. Nigel takes Marlin and Dory to Sherman's office, where Nemo is playing dead to avoid being given to Darla; this causes Marlin to believe Nemo is really dead. Sherman forces Nigel out of his office, and Gill helps Nemo escape through the sink drain that leads to the ocean.
Deeply shaken, Marlin mournfully says goodbye to Dory and begins heading home. Nemo meets Dory, who helps him reunite with Marlin. However, a fishing trawler captures her in a net along with a school of groupers. Nemo and Marlin work together, instructing the fish to swim down. Their combined force breaks the net, saving Dory. Some time later, Marlin, who has become more confident and outgoing, drops Nemo off at school. Dory joins Marlin, and together, they wave goodbye to Nemo as he leaves with his class.
Meanwhile, after the dentist's new filter breaks, the Tank Gang escapes into Sydney Harbour in their plastic bags. Now successfully in the ocean but still stuck in the bags, they ponder what to do next.
Barry Humphries as Bruce, a great white shark, who, despite abstaining from eating fish, continues to fight his instinctive will to eat them; he is also friends with Anchor and Chum.
The inspiration for Finding Nemo sprang from multiple experiences, going back to director Andrew Stanton's childhood, when he loved going to the dentist to see the fish tank, assuming that the fish were from the ocean and wanted to go home.[8] In 1992, shortly after his son was born, he and his family took a trip to Six Flags Discovery Kingdom (which was called Marine World at the time). There, after seeing the shark tube and various exhibits, he felt that the underwater world could be done beautifully in computer animation.[9] Later, in 1997, he took his son for a walk in the park but realized that he was overprotecting him and lost an opportunity to have a father-son experience that day.[8]
In an interview with National Geographic magazine, Stanton said that the idea for the characters of Marlin and Nemo came from a photograph of two clownfish peeking out of an anemone:
It was so arresting. I had no idea what kind of fish they were, but I couldn't take my eyes off them. And as an entertainer, the fact that they were called clownfish—it was perfect. There's almost nothing more appealing than these little fish that want to play peekaboo with you.[10]
In addition, clownfish are colorful, but do not tend to come out of an anemone often. For a character who has to go on a dangerous journey, Stanton felt a clownfish was the perfect type of fish for the character.[8] Pre-production of the film began in early 1997. Stanton began writing the screenplay during the post-production of A Bug's Life. As a result, Finding Nemo began production with a complete screenplay, something that co-director Lee Unkrich called "very unusual for an animated film".[8] The artists took scuba diving lessons to study the coral reef.[8]
Stanton originally planned to use flashbacks to reveal how Coral died but realized that by the end of the film there would be nothing to reveal, deciding to show how she died at the beginning of the movie.[8] The character of Gill also was different from the character seen in the final film. In a scene that was eventually deleted, Gill tells Nemo that he's from a place called Bad Luck Bay and that he has brothers and sisters in order to impress the young clownfish, only for the latter to find out that he was lying by listening to a patient reading a children's storybook that shares exactly the same details.[8]
William H. Macy was the first actor cast as Marlin. Although Macy had recorded most of the dialogue, Stanton felt that the character needed a lighter touch.[11] Stanton then cast Albert Brooks in the role, and in his opinion, it "saved" the film.[8] Brooks liked the idea of Marlin being this clownfish who isn't funny and recorded outtakes of telling very bad jokes.
The idea for the initiation sequence came from a story conference between Stanton and Bob Peterson while they were driving to record the actors. Although he originally envisioned the character of Dory as male, Stanton was inspired to cast Ellen DeGeneres when he watched an episode of Ellen in which he saw her "change the subject five times before finishing one sentence".[8] The pelican character named Gerald (who in the final film ends up swallowing and choking on Marlin and Dory) was originally a friend of Nigel. They were going to play against each other with Nigel being neat and fastidious and Gerald being scruffy and sloppy. The filmmakers could not find an appropriate scene for them that did not slow the pace of the picture, so Gerald's character was minimized.[8]
Stanton himself provided the voice of Crush the sea turtle. He originally did the voice for the film's story reel and assumed they would find an actor later. When Stanton's performance became popular in test screenings, he decided to keep his performance in the film. He recorded all his dialogue while lying on a sofa in Unkrich's office.[8] Crush's son Squirt was voiced by Nicholas Bird, the young son of fellow Pixar director Brad Bird. According to Stanton, the elder Bird was playing a tape recording of his young son around the Pixar studios one day. Stanton felt the voice was "this generation's Thumper" and immediately cast Nicholas.[8]
Megan Mullally was originally going to provide a voice in the film. According to Mullally, the producers were stunned to learn that the voice of her character Karen Walker on the television show Will & Grace was not her natural speaking voice. The producers hired her anyway, and then strongly encouraged her to use her Karen Walker voice for the role. When Mullally refused, she was dismissed.[12]
To ensure that the movements of the fish in the film were believable, the animators took a crash course in fish biology and oceanography. They visited aquariums, went diving in Hawaii, and received in-house lectures from an ichthyologist.[13] As a result, Pixar's animator for Dory, Gini Cruz Santos, integrated "the fish movement, human movement, and facial expressions to make them look and feel like real characters."[14] Production designer Ralph Eggleston created pastel drawings to give the lighting crew led by Sharon Calahan ideas of how every scene in the film should be lit.[15]
The Great white shark, Bruce, is in reference to the animatronic shark used in the Universal film Jaws. The shark they had used on set was nicknamed "Bruce" after Bruce Raiman, who was Steven Spielberg's divorce lawyer.[16] The line "Here's Brucey!" is a reference to the Jack Nicholson line from the 1980 horror film, The Shining.[17] Additionally, the music that plays for the dentist's niece Darla is the theme music from the 1960 Alfred Hitchcock film, Psycho.[18]
The film was dedicated to Glenn McQueen, a Pixar animator who died of melanoma in October 2002.[19]Finding Nemo shares many plot elements with Pierrot the Clownfish,[20] a children's book published in 2002, but allegedly conceived in 1995. The author, Franck Le Calvez, sued Disney for infringement of his intellectual rights and to bar Finding Nemo merchandise in France. The judge ruled against him, citing the color differences between Pierrot and Nemo.[21]
Patrick Stump performed a Navajo version of the end-credits song Beyond the Sea.
In 2016, Disney Character Voices International's senior vice president Rick Dempsey, in collaboration with the Navajo Nation Museum, created a Navajo dubbing of the movie titled Nemo Há’déést’íí which was released in theaters March 18–24 of the same year.[22][23] The project was thought as a means to preserve Navajo language, teaching the language to kids through a Disney movie.[24] The studio held auditions on the reservation, but finding an age-appropriate native speaker to voice Nemo was hard, Dempsey said, as the majority of native Navajo speakers are over 40 years old.[23] The end credits version of the song "Beyond the Sea", covered in the English version by Robbie Williams, was also adapted into Navajo, with Fall Out Boy's lead singer Patrick Stump performing it.[25] In 2016, Finding Nemo was the second movie to receive a dub in Navajo, after Star Wars.[26]
Disney released a teaser trailer of Finding Nemo in September 2002 on the Monsters, Inc. home video releases. The teaser was later released online, and was attached to theatrical screenings of The Santa Clause 2.[30] Trailers for the film were later attached to the home video releases of Treasure Planet,[31]Beauty and the Beast: Belle's Magical World,[32]Inspector Gadget 2 and other Disney films.[33] There were also TV spots that shared "Fishy Facts" about sharks, turtles and pelicans. One of these ads, particularly the one about sharks, can be found on the second disc of the Collector's Edition DVD release of A Bug's Life, which was released three days before the film's release on May 27, 2003.[34]
McDonald's restaurants began to sell eight Happy Meal toys based on the film.[35] At the 100th North American International Toy Fair event in New York City, Hasbro unveiled a variety of Finding Nemo toys.[36] A cereal themed to the film was released by Kellogg's, consisting of naturally sweetened oats with fish-shaped marshmallows.[37]Finding Nemo was advertised as promotional partners on other companies, like Frito-Lay, Keebler, Pepsi, Ralphs, Dreyer's, Jel Sert, Airheads, Orville Redenbacher's and THQ. Before May 26, 2003, stickers on over 50 million bags of potato chips alerted consumers to a sweepstakes dangling a trip for four to Sydney, Australia with a visit to the Great Barrier Reef. On May 17, 2003, Frito-Lay hosted an event at each of the Walmart stores, where kids could use 3D goggles to find hidden images of Nemo. Kellogg's packed eight different water toys depicting film characters inside Frosted Flakes, Rice Krispies, Honey Smacks and Cocoa Rice Krispies cereal boxes. The Honey Smacks, Frosted Flakes, Cinnamon Crunch Crispix and Froot Loops boxes also carried a Nemo memory card game on back panels. Plus, a Nemo-themed Marshmallow Froot Loops cereal featured four of the film's characters. Consumers could mail in two UPCs from the three Kellogg's cereals to receive a large beach towel. Besides this, the company unveiled a new type of Pop-Tarts inspired by Finding Nemo. Known as the Great Berry Reef Pop-Tarts, they had a wild berry filling and fish sprinkles. A pool raft was available with two Pop-Tart UPCs and shipping, handled by Draft Worldwide of Chicago. Eggo waffles would offer holographic swimming goggles with the purchase of two of its products with shipping and handling. For their snacks division, Kellogg's offered consumers who purchased two packages of select products and two gallons of milk with a giant inflatable shark. The company advertised the film on Vanilla Wafers, Chips Deluxe, Mini Fudge Shoppe Fudge Stripes, Soft Batch Chocolate Chip Cookies, Rice Krispies Treats and limited edition Nemo-themed cookies.[38]
On May 20, 2003, Kellogg's recalled Frosted Flakes cereal boxes due to their extremely close resemblance of a Hasbro memory card game. A lawsuit was filed against the company, which included a full-page reproduction of the front of a Frosted Flakes box with the cereal's familiar Tony the Tiger mascot grinning next to Nemo, Dory & Crush from the film. Disney had licensed the characters to use on the game cards. Hasbro had filed the suit to protect its trademark against blatant infringement.[39]
Finding Nemo was not only the fifth Pixar film, but was also the first one to be released during the summer instead of November, much like its four predecessors.[40] The film premiered in Los Angeles on May 18, 2003,[41] and opened in theaters with The Italian Job and Wrong Turn on May 30, 2003.[42]
Finding Nemo was released on VHS and DVD on November 4, 2003, both THX-certified and taken from the digital source.[43][44] The 2-disc DVD release sold more than 8 million copies on the first day of release, taking Spider-Man's record for having the highest single-day DVD sales.[45] It also surpassed Monsters, Inc. for having the highest single-day record for an animated movie.[46] Within two weeks, it went on to become the best-selling DVD of its time, selling over 15 million copies and beating The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring.[47] With over 40 million copies sold, Finding Nemo currently holds the record for the best-selling DVD release of all time.[48] The first disc features a widescreen version, documentaries, galleries and an audio/visual commentary, and the second disc features a full-frame version, games, bonus shorts (Knick Knack, which was shown alongside the film in theaters, and Exploring the Reef), and the advertising campaign. Both discs also feature introductions from Stanton and Unkrich and "virtual aquariums" based on the film's various settings.[49][50]
During its original theatrical run, Finding Nemo grossed $339.7 million in the United States and Canada and $531.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $871.0 million.[4] It was the second-highest-grossing film of 2003, behind
Paris Whitney Hilton (born February 17, 1981)[3][4] is an American media personality, businesswoman, socialite, model, singer, and actress. Born in New York City, and raised there and in Los Angeles, she is a great-granddaughter of Conrad Hilton, the founder of Hilton Hotels. She first attracted tabloid attention in the late 1990s for her presence in NYC's social scene and ventured into fashion modeling at age 19, signing with Trump Model Management. After David LaChapelle photographed her and her sister Nicky for the September 2000 issue of Vanity Fair, Hilton was proclaimed "New York's leading It Girl" in 2001.[3] The reality television series The Simple Life (2003–2007), in which she co-starred with her friend Nicole Richie, and a leaked 2003 sex tape with her then-boyfriend Rick Salomon, later released as 1 Night in Paris (2004), catapulted her to global fame.
A polarizing and ubiquitous public figure, Hilton is said to have influenced the revival of the "famous for being famous" phenomenon throughout the 2000s.[6] Critics indeed suggest that she exemplifies the celebutante—a household name through inherited wealth and lavish lifestyle. Forbes included her in its Celebrity 100 in 2004, 2005, and 2006, and ranked her as the most "overexposed" celebrity in 2006 and 2008. Hilton has parlayed her media fame into numerous business endeavors. Under her company, she has produced content for broadcast media, launched 19 product lines, and opened 45 boutiques worldwide, as well as an urban beach club in the Philippines. Her perfume line alone has brought in over US$2.5 billion in revenue, as of 2020[update].[7][8][9]Variety named her its "Billion Dollar Entrepreneur" in 2011.[10]
Hilton was born on February 17, 1981, in New York City, to Richard Hilton, a businessman, and Kathy Hilton, a socialite and former child actress.[11][12] The oldest of four children, she has one sister, Nicky Hilton (born 1983), and two brothers, Barron Hilton II (born 1989) and Conrad Hughes Hilton (born 1994). On her father's side, she is a great-granddaughter of Conrad Hilton, who founded Hilton Hotels, and granddaughter of Barron Hilton. Her maternal aunts are television personalities Kim and Kyle Richards. Hilton has Norwegian, German, Italian, English, Irish, and Scottish ancestry.[13][14][15] The family followed the Catholic faith.[16][17]
Hilton moved frequently in her youth, living in Beverly Hills, the Hamptons, and a suite in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in Manhattan. Her relatives have described her as "very much a tomboy" who dreamed about becoming a veterinarian. Her mother recalled her saving money to buy monkeys, snakes, and goats, and once leaving "the snake out the cage [...] at the Waldorf".[18] Hilton was raised in a very "sheltered, conservative" atmosphere; her parents were particularly strict and she was not allowed to date, wear make-up or certain types of clothes, or go to school dances. Her mother enrolled her in etiquette classes with the idea of introducing her as a debutante, which Hilton was at first reluctant to do, as she did not find it to be "real" or "natural". She described it as "very proper, very prim, almost like a Stepford wife".[18] The family's social circle included figures such as Lionel Richie, Donald Trump, and Michael Jackson.[19][20]
In New York City, Hilton had a rebellious youth, regularly skipping classes and sneaking out to parties. On this period, Kathy remarked: "Let's put it this way—it got very out of control and I was scared for her. And my husband was very scared for her. And, you know, those nightclubs go on all night."[23] Her parents eventually sent her, then 16, to a series of boarding schools for emotionally troubled teens, including Provo Canyon School, where she says that she was mentally and physically abused by the staff. In her documentary This Is Paris, Hilton and other former students from Provo Canyon School recall the abuses they faced, including solitary confinement, forced medication, restraint, battery and strangulation. She attended Provo for 11 months and was released in early 1999, around the time she turned 18.[24][25][26][27] She then attended the Dwight School before dropping out a few months later. "She knew no one at [Dwight]", said her mother in an interview, while a classmate described her as "sort of more sophisticated. She was different from everybody else".[20] She later earned a GED certification.[28][29]
With mother Kathy and sister Nicky, Hilton modeled as a child at charity events,[30] graced the May 4, 1988, cover of the weekly magazine Beverly Hills 213,[31] and made an uncredited appearance in the fantasy film Wishman (1992).
After relocating to NYC in 1996, Hilton developed a reputation as a socialite through appearances at nightclubs and high-profile events. She has recalled getting offers to show up in nightclubs as early as she was 16,[32][33][34] when she obtained a counterfeited identity document in order to gain access to events. Her antics and late-night persona soon started attracting the spotlight from local tabloids. After becoming familiar with Paris and Nicky's social circle, Jason Binn, publisher of Hamptons magazine, stated: "They're little stars. They've become names. To them it's like a job. I believe they wake up every morning and say, 'O.K., where am I supposed to be tonight?'."[35]
That lifestyle conflicted with her family's conservative background and proved too "rebellious" for the young Paris, whose parents sent her to a series of boarding schools until she turned 18. Hilton resumed public appearances shortly afterwards, and attended the NYC premiere of Cruel Intentions in March 1999 with Nicky.[36] A New Yorker profile by Bob Morris, published in October that year, described her and her sister as "the littlest socialites in town [...] Without even a smile, they can breeze past the velvet ropes at Moomba or get a seat at Le Bilboquet".[37] Businessman George J. Maloof Jr., for instance, flew Hilton in his private jet and paid her to attend the Palms Casino Resort opening in Las Vegas in November 2001.[32][38][39][40][41]
Inspired by designers Patricia Field and Betsey Johnson, Hilton decided to pursue modeling, signing with Donald Trump's agency, T Management, at age 19.[30] She modeled for Catherine Malandrino and Marc Bouwer, and posed alongside Nicky for David LaChapelle in a shoot that was featured in the September 2000 issue of Vanity Fair.[42] On her persona, LaChapelle stated: "Paris had a charisma back then that you couldn't take your eyes off. She would giggle and laugh and be effervescent and take up a room".[43] By 2001, Hilton had become "one of the biggest stars, off and on the catwalk," at New York Fashion Week, graced an advertising campaign for Italian label Iceberg, and appeared on magazines such as Vogue and FHM.[44]
In addition to modeling, Hilton ventured into screen acting, playing an ill-fated character in the independent teen thriller Sweetie Pie (2000),[20] and filming a cameo appearance as herself in the comedy Zoolander (2001), with Ben Stiller. In 2002, she appeared in Vincent Gallo's "Honey Bunny" video,[45] played a "strung-out supermodel" in the five-minute short QIK2JDG, and starred as a socialite in the straight-to-DVD horror film Nine Lives.
Hilton's breakout came in 2003, when she starred with her childhood friend and socialite counterpart Nicole Richie in the Fox reality series The Simple Life, in which they lived for a month with a family in the rural community of Altus, Arkansas. The show was initially pitched to both Paris and Nicky Hilton. Paris was convinced to come on board; however, Nicky, being somewhat shy to the limelight at the time, opted out.[46] The series premiered on December 2, 2003, shortly after the leak of Hilton's sex tape,[47] and was a ratings success. Its first episode attracted 13 million viewers, increasing Fox's adult 18–49 rating by 79 percent.[48] The high viewership was attributed to the exposure Hilton received for the homemade tape,[49] while she became known for her onscreen dumb blonde persona.[50][51]
Originally planned for a limited release, high demand for her first fragrance choked supplies but led to increased availability by December 2004. Its introduction was followed by a 47-percent increase in Parlux sales, primarily of the Hilton-branded perfume.[58] After this success, Parlux has released numerous perfumes under her name, including fragrances for men.[59]
In February 2005, Hilton hosted NBC's Saturday Night Live, with Keane as the musical guest,[60] and in May, the slasher film House of Wax—her first major film role[61][62]—was released in theaters,[63] to mixed reviews.[64] Writing for View London, Matthew Turner remarked that Hilton "does better than you might expect",[65] while TV Guide called her "talentless".[66] Her role earned her the Teen Choice Award for Best Scream, the 2005 Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress,[67] and a nomination for Best Frightened Performance at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards. House of Wax grossed over US$70 million worldwide.[68] In May 2005, Carl's Jr. aired a television advertisement, promoting its Spicy Burger product, which featured Hilton in a provocative swimsuit soaping up a Bentley automobile.[69] By November 2005, she had published her second book, Your Heiress Diary: Confess It All to Me.[70]
The Simple Life was canceled by Fox in 2005 after three seasons following a dispute between Hilton and Richie. Neither Richie nor Hilton spoke publicly about their split, although it was speculated that they fell out after Richie showed one of Hilton's homemade sex tapes to a group of their friends.[71] They reconciled in October 2006.[72] After The Simple Life was cancelled, other networks (NBC, The WB, VH1 and MTV) were interested in obtaining the rights for new seasons of the show.[73] On November 28, 2005, E! announced that it had picked up The Simple Life, ordering the production of a fourth season and obtaining the rights to repeat the first three seasons. Shooting for the new season began on February 27, 2006.[74] The fourth-season premiere of the show was a ratings success for its new network.[75]
Hilton released her self-titled debut album, Paris, on August 22, 2006. The album reached number six on the Billboard 200, and sold over 600,000 copies worldwide.[76] Its lead single, "Stars Are Blind", found global success. It was played on more than 125 pop stations in the United States,[77][78] and reached the top ten in 17 countries.[79] Critical reception was generally mixed,[80] but AllMusic called the album "more fun than anything released by Britney Spears or Jessica Simpson".[81]
In 2006, Hilton top-billed as vain, dumb blonde characters in the comedy films Bottoms Up and National Lampoon's Pledge This!, both of which received DVD releases in North America. Australia's Urban Cinefile described Bottoms Up as a "crass, low-brow comedy" with "little merit" except for "some Paris Hilton curiosity value".[82] She reportedly snubbed the Cannes Film Festival premiere of Pledge This! to protest the addition of several nude scenes,[83] which resulted in Worldwide Entertainment Group suing Hilton in August 2008, at the Miami District Court, alleging that she did not fulfill her contractual agreement to provide "reasonable promotion and publicity" for the film, despite receiving a US$1 million fee for the role.[84] Hilton licensed her name to Gameloft for their 2006 mobile video game Paris Hilton's Diamond Quest.
The Simple Life finished its run with its fifth season, which debuted on May 28, 2007, and ended on August 5, 2007. That year, Hilton introduced her DreamCatchers line of hair extensions with Hair Tech International,[85] signed a licensing agreement with Antebi for a signature footwear line (Paris Hilton Footwear, featuring stilettos, platforms, flats, wedges and a sports collection),[86] and launched a line of tops, dresses, coats and jeans at the Kitson Boutique in Los Angeles.[87] She also posed nude (covered with gold paint) to promote "Rich Prosecco", a canned version of the Italian sparkling wine,[88][89] traveling to Germany to appear in advertisements for the wine,[90] and modeled for 2 B Free.[91]
Hilton starred in a MTV reality series, Paris Hilton's My New BFF, about her search for a new best friend,[101] which premiered on September 30, 2008.[102] The series was a hit and topped all other cable shows in its time slot.[103] That year, she also appeared in two viral Funny or Die videos, Paris Hilton Responds to McCain and Paris Hilton Gets Presidential with Martin Sheen,[104][105] and inspired by her love for dogs, created a canine apparel line, Little Lily by Paris Hilton.[106]
As a result of the American version's success, Paris Hilton's British Best Friend debuted on ITV2 in England on January 29, 2009,[107] the second season of Paris Hilton's My New BFF premiered on June 2, and Paris Hilton's Dubai BFF was internationally broadcast on MTV in April 2011.[108] She guest-starred in the fifth episode of Supernatural's fifth season, which aired on October 8, 2009.[109][110] In 2009, Hilton also released a sunglasses line[111] and a range of hair products that included shampoos, conditioners and vitamins.[112] She won the Female Celebrity Fragrance of the Year Award at the 2009 Fifi Awards.[113]
On June 1, 2011, Hilton returned to reality television in Oxygen's The World According to Paris.[124] Focused on her daily life,[125] the series bought in lackluster ratings amid a controversial promotional campaign,[126] which was attributed to her then-fading popularity in North America.[127] Alessandra Stanley, for The New York Times, described her as an "attractive woman with proven talent for marketing and self-promotion, though as a reality heroine she seems a little passé [...] it's hard to see how she can recapture the kind of audience she enjoyed in her heyday—even by streaming her premiere live on Facebook".[128]
In 2011, Hilton modeled for Triton during Brazil Fashion Week and for Andre Tan during Ukraine Fashion Week, and continued her endorsement and retail endeavors,[129] introducing a mobile application, which became available for iPhone and iPod touch,[130] and footwear collections in Mexico City[131][132]
Within a nervous system, a neuron, neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitablecell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap.
Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and Placozoa. Non-animals like plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the Tonian period. Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system.[1]
Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal cord or brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from muscle contractions[2] to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are functionally connected together, they form what is called a neural circuit.
Neurons are special cells which are made up of some structures that are common to all other eukaryotic cells such as the cell body (soma), a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components.[3] Additionally, neurons have other unique structures such as dendrites, and a single axon.[3] The soma is a compact structure, and the axon and dendrites are filaments extruding from the soma. Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock and travels for as far as 1 meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon's branches are axon terminals, where the neuron can transmit a signal across the synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the cell is undifferentiated.
Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite. The signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an all-or-nothingelectrochemical pulse called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon and activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.
In most cases, neurons are generated by neural stem cells during brain development and childhood. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain.
Schematic of an anatomically accurate single pyramidal neuron, the primary excitatory neuron of the cerebral cortex, with a synaptic connection from an incoming axon onto a dendritic spine
Axons may bundle into fascicles that make up the nerves in the peripheral nervous system (like strands of wire make up cables). Bundles of axons in the central nervous system are called tracts.
Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given their diversity of functions performed in different parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in their shape, size, and electrochemical properties. For instance, the soma of a neuron can vary from 4 to 100 micrometers in diameter.[6]
The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.[7]
The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine.
The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may—and usually will—undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological terms, it has the most negative threshold potential.
While the axon and axon hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input from other neurons.
The axon terminal is found at the end of the axon farthest from the soma and contains synapses. Synaptic boutons are specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are released to communicate with target neurons. In addition to synaptic boutons at the axon terminal, a neuron may have en passant boutons, which are located along the length of the axon.
Neuron cell body
The accepted view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical components; however, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-called main function.[8]
Diagram of a typical myelinated vertebrate motor neuronNeurology video
Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10–25 micrometers in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a human motor neuron can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes.
Sensory neurons can have axons that run from the toes to the posterior column of the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5–1 millimeter thick, several centimeters long).
Fully differentiated neurons are permanently postmitotic[9] however, stem cells present in the adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism (see neurogenesis). Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells. They have been observed to turn into neurons by virtue of their stem cell-like characteristic of pluripotency.
Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipid molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it.[10] A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid. The ion materials include sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. The interactions between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically a bit less than 1/10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power source for an assortment of voltage-dependent protein machinery that is embedded in the membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of the membrane.
Golgi-stained neurons in human hippocampal tissueActin filaments in a mouse cortical neuron in culture
Numerous microscopic clumps called Nissl bodies (or Nissl substance) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with a basophilic ("base-loving") dye. These structures consist of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal RNA. Named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl (1860–1919), they are involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically active. Basophilic dyes such as aniline or (weakly) haematoxylin[11] highlight negatively charged components, and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal RNA.
The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which together with neurotubules (neuronal microtubules) are assembled into larger neurofibrils.[12] Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age.[13][14][15] Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Class III β-tubulin is found almost exclusively in neurons. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule.[16]
There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons almost never contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts as the distance from the cell body increases.
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function.[18] The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.[citation needed]
Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:[19]
Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites are receiving sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in a ganglion. The axon projects from the dendrite endings, past the cell body in a ganglion, and into the central nervous system.
Bipolar: 1 axon and 1 dendrite. They are found mainly in the olfactory epithelium, and as part of the retina.
A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors. The effect upon the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the type of receptor that is activated, not by the presynaptic neuron or by the neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same neurotransmitter can activate multiple types of receptors. Receptors can be classified broadly as excitatory (causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a decrease in firing rate), or modulatory (causing long-lasting effects not directly related to firing rate).[citation needed]
The two most common (90%+) neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate and GABA, have largely consistent actions. Glutamate acts on several types of receptors, and has effects that are excitatory at ionotropic receptors and a modulatory effect at metabotropic receptors. Similarly, GABA acts on several types of receptors, but all of them have inhibitory effects (in adult animals, at least). Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to refer to cells that release glutamate as "excitatory neurons", and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons". Some other types of neurons have consistent effects, for example, "excitatory" motor neurons in the spinal cord that release acetylcholine, and "inhibitory" spinal neurons that release glycine.[citation needed]
The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets, inhibitory effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example, photoreceptor cells in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So-called OFF bipolar cells are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because they lack typical ionotropicglutamate receptors and instead express a class of inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors.[20] When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them.[citation needed]
It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron will have on a postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic neuron expresses. Parvalbumin-expressing neurons typically dampen the output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the visual cortex, whereas somatostatin-expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the postsynaptic neuron.[21]
Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic transmembrane voltage oscillatory patterns.[22] So neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics:
Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (tonically) active, typically firing at a constant frequency. Example: interneurons in neurostriatum.
Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.
Fast-spiking. Some neurons are notable for their high firing rates, for example some types of cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus pallidus, retinal ganglion cells.[23][24]
Cholinergic neurons – acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing influx of Na+ depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A.
GABAergic neurons – gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an action potential firing as the voltage becomes more negative (for an action potential to fire, a positive voltage threshold must be reached). GABA is synthesized from
This program unpacks Playstation 3 Theme files (.p3t) so that you can touch-up an existing theme to your likings or use a certain wallpaper from it (as many themes have multiple). But remember, if you use content from another theme and release it, be sure to give credit!
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